Common idea – independence
The beginnings of American democracy lie in the Revolutionary War. During this period, the leaders of the independence movement differed significantly in their views on the future of the state that was being born from the ruins of the English colonies. The disputes concerned the level of federalization of the state, the nature of the legislative power (whether the legislature should be unicameral or bicameral), the nature of the executive power (monarchy, multi-person power, entrusting the role of the leader of the nation to a single elected politician). These disputes were expressed, inter alia, in the discussions between the states' representatives during the Constitutional Convention, which was held in 1787 in Philadelphia.
Regardless of the different visions regarding the details of the future of the new state, the independence camp was unanimous on issues of a general nature. Thus, at an early stage of development of the American political system, it is difficult to indicate the existence of political parties. In the literature on the subject, we usually speak of factions that sought either to emphasize the position of the Union (Federalists) or to assign a special role to the states (Anti-Federalists).
The vision of the existence of political parties even gave rise to fears that the United States would become immersed in disputes and unnecessary conflicts. During the farewell address that George Washington delivered in September 1796 (at the end of his second term as President of the United States), he pointed out, i.e., “The alternate domination of one faction over another, sharpened by the spirit of revenge natural to party dissention, […] is itself a frightful despotism.”
From faction to party
However, the initial assumptions could not stand the test of time. The former factions became increasingly different from each other. The ideals of freedom and independence that had initially united the colonies and then the states were beginning to give way to the realities of everyday life. The words of George Washington quoted above were not spoken by accident. Although the figure of Washington held the young nation together, already during his second term in office increasingly strong aspirations began to emerge towards the clear formation of distinct political parties. This "plundering" of Washington's legacy gained such momentum that his immediate successors found themselves in deep political conflict. This conflict was all the more devastating because it took place at the highest levels of state power. There was a constant political dispute between the second President of the United States, John Adams, and his Vice President, Thomas Jefferson (at that stage, the method of electing the President and Vice President was different from today's; this issue will be the subject of one of the articles to be published in the ConLaw24 series in a few weeks).
The dispute between Adams and Jefferson determined the formation of two political parties in the United States, and thus also the two-party political model. The Federalists sought to strengthen the Union's position (initially led by Alexander Hamilton and John Adams) while the Democratic-Republicans (led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison) sought to strengthen the states in favour of the Union. The disintegration of the former independence camp led to internal conflicts, but also had an impact on international relations, especially in the context of decisions that led to the outbreak of the War of 1812, which the United States fought against Great Britain.
Strengthening of the two-party system
The conflicts over ideas that characterised the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries gradually began to take on a more complex form. The first decades of the 19th century were a time of dynamic development in the United States, but the differences in this development in different parts of the United States became increasingly noticeable. It is then that the differentiation between the states into northern and southern began to become clear. The discussion about land management practices in various parts of the United States started to play an important role. Territorial expansion was creating new problems that had not been encountered before or on such a large scale, such as conflicts with the Native American population in the areas known as the Frontiers – lands located west of the former colonies, especially those acquired by Thomas Jefferson through the Louisiana Transaction, which de facto gave the United States control over almost the entire interior located in the Mississippi River basin. The issue of slavery, which was becoming increasingly different between the states, was also significant.
All these circumstances began to play an increasingly important role in political discourse, and in some respects, it could even be said that views became increasingly radical.
Legal and systemic actions also created fertile ground for the polarisation of society and the programmes of political parties. For example, in 1820, the so-called Missouri Compromise was adopted, which designated states where slavery was permitted and those where slavery was allowed to be completely abolished. This issue was to increasingly inflame political tensions in the United States in the following decades. In 1832, candidates for President of the United States began to be selected not by state legislatures but by political party conventions. This change began to favour large political movements that could gain support across the United States.
It was also during this period that new political parties were formed. In 1828 the former Democratic-Republican party split. In its place, the Democratic Party was formed, with Andrew Jackson (the seventh President of the United States) and Martin Van Buren (Jackson's successor as President) as its leader. The National Republican Party (NPR) led by John Quincy Adams (the sixth President of the United States) was in opposition to the democrats. Over the next few years, the NDP merged with smaller political factions, transformed, and ultimately became the Whig Party in 1833. From that point until the mid-1950s. In the 1890s, two-party politics in the United States was conceptualized as between the Democratic Party and the Whig Party.
The Whigs ultimately proved too weak a competitor to the Democrats. Dissatisfaction was also growing within the party itself. Ultimately, the defeat of Winfield Scott, the party's candidate for President of the United States, in 1852 led to the end of the party's activities. Some of its members, however, began to think about seriously reshaping the political discourse and creating a new organisation. In 1854, the Republican Party was founded, which in a very short time gained much support and achieved great political success. Just six years after the party's founding, its candidate is elected the sixteenth President of the United States. That candidate was Abraham Lincoln.
The contemporary political party system in the United States
The two-party system formed in the mid-19th century based on the competition between Democrats and Republicans has survived for one hundred and seventy years. It has become a permanent part of American everyday life. It must be stated, however, that for over a century and a half, both political parties have undergone huge ideological transformations, which in turn has translated into an increase and decrease in support for one party, sometimes the other (so far, nineteen Presidents of the United States have represented the Republican Party, and sixteen times the Democratic Party). Even today, we can observe serious changes in the vision of the United States in the programmes of both parties, although much more serious changes can currently be observed in the Republican Party, which is increasingly moving away from the concepts of Ronald Reagan that have dominated in recent decades in favour of populist slogans represented by the Make America Great Again (MAGA) movement associated with Donald Trump.
The contemporary American political scene knows other "players." Their significance, however, is almost imperceptible in the broader American perspective. Currently, only two minor parties have representatives serving in state legislatures. In Wyoming, the Libertarian Party has one representative in the state House of Representatives, and the Forward Party has two representatives in the state legislature. The Green Party and the Constitution Party also play a certain role in local political discourse. However, they are far from having a real influence on American politics.
Text: Dr hab. Łukasz Jan Korporowicz, Associate Professor at the University of Lodz
Center for Anglo-American Legal Tradition / Department of Constitutional Law, University of Lodz
ORCID: 0000-0002-5725-5018
The article is a part of the ConLaw24 series, in which the Center for Anglo-American Legal Tradition takes a closer look at the intricacies of the American legal and political system. We will publish new texts every Tuesday until election day.
- The University of Lodz Researcher Talks about the US Presidential Election System
- Why Does the Office of President of the United States Look the Way It Does?
- ConLaw24: Electors, i.e., Who Exactly?